This section is focused on the local waterfowl species that inhabits in Humboldt County partially or permanently. The following information was obtained from grad-students, guest lectures and professor Black at Humboldt State University, CA.
Aleutian Cackling Goose (Branta hutchinsii leucopareia)
By J. Black
The Aleutian Cackling Goose, hereafter Aleutian Goose, is species that was thought to be extinct by 1950s. A USFWS team visited the Aleutian islands in 1973 and found a small colony of Aleutian goose with less than 500 individuals in Boldier island. The Aleutian goose was listed as endangered under the ESA in 1973. Its population recovered pretty quickly and was delisted when population sized reached over 30,000 individuals in 2001.
In 1970s, all foxes were removed from the Aleutian islands for the recovery of Aleutian geese and the hunting season for Canada goose was closed throughout the United States in 1975. By the mid 1970s, Paul Springer from the USFWS was the first person in charge of counting waterfowl in Humboldt County. In 1975, he discovered for the first time first Aleutian goose migratory population in an island in Crescent City.
To date, the Aleutian goose population is estimated to approximately 100,000 individuals and their happy recovery is becoming a major issue to local farmers due to the monetary loss that geese produce on their pastures. During our field trip visit to Peter Bussman Rach, she person who gave a quick tour of the area narrated to us the impact that Aleutian gesse have in their property. The problem of wildlife with humans is always generated from financial side. This lady told us the geese forage on their pastures 24/7 and this activity degrade their pastures and produce them a monetary loss because their cattle are not getting the nutrients require for a high quality product.
In the last 10 years, different techniques have been proposed by ranchers and farmers in order to gaze the geese. They gaze geese using sounds, cars, bicycles fireworks and more but nothing seems to work. In the last years, Arcata farmers and other farmers impacted by the geese established a committee that seeks for a democratic decision and agreement between different parties for a rapid solution or monetary compensation for feeding the geese.
In 1970s, all foxes were removed from the Aleutian islands for the recovery of Aleutian geese and the hunting season for Canada goose was closed throughout the United States in 1975. By the mid 1970s, Paul Springer from the USFWS was the first person in charge of counting waterfowl in Humboldt County. In 1975, he discovered for the first time first Aleutian goose migratory population in an island in Crescent City.
To date, the Aleutian goose population is estimated to approximately 100,000 individuals and their happy recovery is becoming a major issue to local farmers due to the monetary loss that geese produce on their pastures. During our field trip visit to Peter Bussman Rach, she person who gave a quick tour of the area narrated to us the impact that Aleutian gesse have in their property. The problem of wildlife with humans is always generated from financial side. This lady told us the geese forage on their pastures 24/7 and this activity degrade their pastures and produce them a monetary loss because their cattle are not getting the nutrients require for a high quality product.
In the last 10 years, different techniques have been proposed by ranchers and farmers in order to gaze the geese. They gaze geese using sounds, cars, bicycles fireworks and more but nothing seems to work. In the last years, Arcata farmers and other farmers impacted by the geese established a committee that seeks for a democratic decision and agreement between different parties for a rapid solution or monetary compensation for feeding the geese.
American Wigeon (Anas americana)
By J. Black and Widlife class 311
The study of waterfowl species is important, so that we can have a better understanding of birds’ behavior, migration pattern, population density, etc. The American wigeon (Anas americana), hereafter wigeon, is a common dabbling duck of North America and migrate from Canada to the United States, especially Washington, Oregon and California. Wigeon numbers vary on a daily basis possibly due to one or more factors such as presence of predators food availability , disturbance, etc.
Last year, there was a study in the Arcata Marsh to investigate the variation in numbers of wigeon, and whether their variation in number is due to a single factor or many others that directly influence wigeon abundance. The American wigeon breed in northwestern North America, mainly in Canada and Alaska, and migrate south during the winter (Mowbray 1999). According to Hitchock et al. (1993), wigeon begin to arrive in California in October and this migration peaks between December through February. The American wigeon shows a similar feeding behavior to the Eurasian Wigeon (Anas penelope) foraging inland and increasing their vigilance patterns along with the distance and time away from water (Berl and Black 2011).
Precipitation (e.g., fog and rain) had a negative effect on wigeon numbers and could potentially be the main reason that causes the variation in numbers of wigeon in the Arcata Marsh. However, precipitation may not only be the main cause of the variation of wigeon, but the combination of other environmental factors, such as wind speed and temperature may also have a direct influence on wigeon abundance. Previous studies on waterfowl species have shown that ducks behave and react differently to temperature and precipitation, which may explain the variation in their abundance in a particular area over time (Mallory et al. 2003).
Literatured Cited
Berl, J. L., and J. M. Black. 2011. Vigilance behaviour of American Wigeon (Anas americana) foraging in pastures. <https://www.humboldt.edu/wildlife/faculty/black/pdf/Berl_Black2011Wildfowl.pdf>. Accessed 15 Nov 2012.
Hitchcock, R. R., R. Balcomb, and R. J. Kendall. 1993. Migration chronology of American wigeon in Washington, Oregon and California. Journal of Field Ornithology 64:96-101.
Mallory, M. L., L. A. Venier, and D. McKenney. 2003. Winter weather and waterfowl surveys in north-western Ontario, Canada. Journal of biogeography 30:441–448.
Mowbray, T. 1999. American wigeon (Anas americana). The birds of North America. The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and The American Ornithologists Union, Washington, D.C., USA.
Last year, there was a study in the Arcata Marsh to investigate the variation in numbers of wigeon, and whether their variation in number is due to a single factor or many others that directly influence wigeon abundance. The American wigeon breed in northwestern North America, mainly in Canada and Alaska, and migrate south during the winter (Mowbray 1999). According to Hitchock et al. (1993), wigeon begin to arrive in California in October and this migration peaks between December through February. The American wigeon shows a similar feeding behavior to the Eurasian Wigeon (Anas penelope) foraging inland and increasing their vigilance patterns along with the distance and time away from water (Berl and Black 2011).
Precipitation (e.g., fog and rain) had a negative effect on wigeon numbers and could potentially be the main reason that causes the variation in numbers of wigeon in the Arcata Marsh. However, precipitation may not only be the main cause of the variation of wigeon, but the combination of other environmental factors, such as wind speed and temperature may also have a direct influence on wigeon abundance. Previous studies on waterfowl species have shown that ducks behave and react differently to temperature and precipitation, which may explain the variation in their abundance in a particular area over time (Mallory et al. 2003).
Literatured Cited
Berl, J. L., and J. M. Black. 2011. Vigilance behaviour of American Wigeon (Anas americana) foraging in pastures. <https://www.humboldt.edu/wildlife/faculty/black/pdf/Berl_Black2011Wildfowl.pdf>. Accessed 15 Nov 2012.
Hitchcock, R. R., R. Balcomb, and R. J. Kendall. 1993. Migration chronology of American wigeon in Washington, Oregon and California. Journal of Field Ornithology 64:96-101.
Mallory, M. L., L. A. Venier, and D. McKenney. 2003. Winter weather and waterfowl surveys in north-western Ontario, Canada. Journal of biogeography 30:441–448.
Mowbray, T. 1999. American wigeon (Anas americana). The birds of North America. The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and The American Ornithologists Union, Washington, D.C., USA.
Black Brant (Branta bernicla nigricans)
by HSU Wildlife grad students
Black brant, hereafter brants, follows the Pacific flyway from Alaska to winter in Humboldt bay every year. Brants migrate 800-2000 miles and sometimes this journey is non-stop. The main reason why the migrate to this area is because Humboldt County bay has the most abundant eelgrass waters in the U.S. and Canada. Although the abundance of food, brants population is decreasing. Black brants have been studied for over 10 years in Humboldt County, CA, and every study tried to answer a different question.
In 1999, MS candidate J. Moore started a project about the foraging sites and behavior of brants trying to answer the question whether brants visit the best feeding sites. He counted the number of brants in a flock and the food density in 1 meter square frames. He founded that brants seems to know when the high and low tides are coming and congregated in groups for feeding. This studied revealed that this species seems to be selecting the best sites in the bay.
In 2000, MS candidate D. Lee studied the foraging home ranges of this species over time. He found that 28% (37,500) of brants passed through in the year 2000, and 58% (78,800) of brants passed through in 2001. He addressed the question whether brants were griting at an optimal time.
In 2005, MS candidate E. Bjerre studied the optimal brant grit. She collected the guts of brants by telling the local hunters that she could take the guts of the brants for free, which is something that most (if not all) hunters desire, a clean gut-free brant. Emily found that more brants grit at low tide levels when larger grit is available.
In 2006, MS candidate S. Ferson studied the impact of black brants on eelgrass. She studied the reaction of eelgrass under the constant foraging activity of brants. Sussanah found that eelgrass sex is turn on by brants. This means that eelgrass produce more seeds under the constant feeding activity of brants.
In 2010, MS candidates Betsy Elkiton and Bryan Daniels started a simultaneously study in and Northern California and Alaska respectively. They are looking that foraging strategies of black brant. Betsy is focused on brants that visit Humboldt Bay. Brants can only reach eelgrass when tides are lower than 0.9 meters and therefore Betsy is being interested in the activity of brants when they cannot reach eelgrass. She defined "bed feeding" when tides are low and brants feed pretty much from the grounds, whereas "drift feeding" was defined when eelgrass is covered by water.One of the first observation she did was that brants seem to be shifting their migration arrival from March to February. Also, she notices that brants feed is bigger groups when tide is low (bed feeding) and smaller groups when tide is high (drift feeding). She also found out that when tides are low, brants spend a good amount of time tearing eelgrass as much as they can. This behavior is understandable because brants only have a limited amount of time to reach eelgrass. When tides go back to high levels, brants spend their time eating the torn pieces of eelgrass, maximizing their food intake.
In 1999, MS candidate J. Moore started a project about the foraging sites and behavior of brants trying to answer the question whether brants visit the best feeding sites. He counted the number of brants in a flock and the food density in 1 meter square frames. He founded that brants seems to know when the high and low tides are coming and congregated in groups for feeding. This studied revealed that this species seems to be selecting the best sites in the bay.
In 2000, MS candidate D. Lee studied the foraging home ranges of this species over time. He found that 28% (37,500) of brants passed through in the year 2000, and 58% (78,800) of brants passed through in 2001. He addressed the question whether brants were griting at an optimal time.
In 2005, MS candidate E. Bjerre studied the optimal brant grit. She collected the guts of brants by telling the local hunters that she could take the guts of the brants for free, which is something that most (if not all) hunters desire, a clean gut-free brant. Emily found that more brants grit at low tide levels when larger grit is available.
In 2006, MS candidate S. Ferson studied the impact of black brants on eelgrass. She studied the reaction of eelgrass under the constant foraging activity of brants. Sussanah found that eelgrass sex is turn on by brants. This means that eelgrass produce more seeds under the constant feeding activity of brants.
In 2010, MS candidates Betsy Elkiton and Bryan Daniels started a simultaneously study in and Northern California and Alaska respectively. They are looking that foraging strategies of black brant. Betsy is focused on brants that visit Humboldt Bay. Brants can only reach eelgrass when tides are lower than 0.9 meters and therefore Betsy is being interested in the activity of brants when they cannot reach eelgrass. She defined "bed feeding" when tides are low and brants feed pretty much from the grounds, whereas "drift feeding" was defined when eelgrass is covered by water.One of the first observation she did was that brants seem to be shifting their migration arrival from March to February. Also, she notices that brants feed is bigger groups when tide is low (bed feeding) and smaller groups when tide is high (drift feeding). She also found out that when tides are low, brants spend a good amount of time tearing eelgrass as much as they can. This behavior is understandable because brants only have a limited amount of time to reach eelgrass. When tides go back to high levels, brants spend their time eating the torn pieces of eelgrass, maximizing their food intake.
Hawaiian Goose (Branta Sandvicensis)
by J. Black
The Hawaiian goose, also known as Nene, is an endemic species of the Hawaiian islands. In spite of a massive reintroduction program lasting over 40 years in duration, Hawaiian geese are on the brink of extinction because only 1,275 individuals remain in the wild. The population declined due to the overexploitation by the early Europeans, conversion of their habitat into hotels and agriculture, and the introduction of predators such as rats and mongoose. they
There are two competing hypotheses proposed to explain why Hawaiian geese are not responding to recovery efforts. These include excessive predation by introduced mongoose and a lack of nutritious food in current goose habitats.
The Hawaiian goose is the tamest of waterfowl, making it possible to obtain detailed observation in their natural setting. The Hawaiian goose was the focus of a long-term reintroduction program where more than 2500 captive-bred birds were released into the wild. Some research has been conducted to identify successes and failures of past reintroduction techniques and behavior-ecology studies about survival and reproduction. They found that most released geese perished on the mountain tops. Additionally, geese that survival was higher at lower elevation.
There are two competing hypotheses proposed to explain why Hawaiian geese are not responding to recovery efforts. These include excessive predation by introduced mongoose and a lack of nutritious food in current goose habitats.
The Hawaiian goose is the tamest of waterfowl, making it possible to obtain detailed observation in their natural setting. The Hawaiian goose was the focus of a long-term reintroduction program where more than 2500 captive-bred birds were released into the wild. Some research has been conducted to identify successes and failures of past reintroduction techniques and behavior-ecology studies about survival and reproduction. They found that most released geese perished on the mountain tops. Additionally, geese that survival was higher at lower elevation.
Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola)
by Yvan Delgado de la Flor
FEMALE BUFFLEHEAD MATE SELECTION IN RESPONSE TO MALE DIVING ACTIVITY
INTRODUCTION
Waterfowl are one of the many groups of birds that at some point of their life cycle are very dependent to wetlands (Owen and Black 1990). Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) is a diving duck that migrates south from Canada to winter in the United States. Buffleheads spend a considerable amount of time feeding, and males and females are observed in different flock sizes. A study of bufflehead and other local ducks suggest that some buffleheads select their mates in February, March and April before migrating to their breeding areas (Townsend 1916). I hypothesized that mating selection of female buffleheads might be influenced by diving activity of male buffleheads in the winter.
The aim of this study was to find out if male buffleheads that spend more time feeding (diving) are most likely to be found with female partners. Buffleheads, as well as other waterfowl species, play a big role in wildlife management and therefore their study is important for hunting, conservation and management implications. Bufflehead is a small diving duck who feeds in invertebrates and vegetation in both fresh and saltwater (The Birds of North America 1993), and they winter in most of the United States territory. Buffleheads spend most of their time feeding during the winter as they get prepared to the long journey to their breeding areas in spring (Bergan et al. 1989). I will address the question whether bufflehead females will be observed more often with males that spend more time diving. If my hypothesis is supported, then male buffleheads that spend more time underwater will be accompanied by one or more females; and therefore, males that spend less time diving will be surrounded by fewer or none females.
STUDY AREA
This study was conducted in the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary (AMWS) in Arcata, California, USA (40.8562°N, 124.0953°W) (Fig. 1). The AMWS is the result of a wastewater treatment plan created to clean the sewage waste naturally before it is released into Humboldt Bay (Friends of the Arcata Marsh 1989). The AMWS is 125 hectares of salt/freshwater marshes and grassy uplands that provide habitat to over 270 birds during the migratory season and 73 birds all year-round (Wildlife Sanctuary City of Arcata 2013). In addition, the area provides rich in vegetation for duck food like sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), lesser duckweed (Lemna minor) as well as shrubs, trees and grasses around the ponds (Higley 1988). The AMWS is also a public place that people visit in a daily basis and no permission or purchase of a ticket is required to enjoy recreational activities like walking, biking and birding.
METHODS
I collected my data (with the assistance of a classmate) for three consecutive weekends on 9-10, 16-17, 23 and 25 of February 2013. We met at the railway tracks South “I” street at the AMWS at 900 hours (±15 minutes), during the study. On arrival, one person was in charge of taking notes and recording data including start time, precipitation (none, slight, moderate and heavy), and cloud cover (none, partly cloudy, mostly cloudy and overcast). In addition, the same person recorded the presence of raptors, river otters, human activities and other potential disturbance events that may affect the behavior of buffleheads in the ponds. Ducks that moved to a different pond were counted only if the diving activity of these birds were previously recorded and we were always vigilant for events like predation, inter- and intraspecific competition and courtship displays. Tide levels were obtained during data collection in 15 minute intervals (WWW Tide and Current Predictor 2012).
We collected our data in six days on three consecutive weekends of February making a total of 66 counts during the study period. Using a pair of 10x12 binoculars and a stop-watch, the second person was in charge of recording the diving activity of 2-4 ducks at each pond. Ducks were randomly chosen from groups or when they were alone, and their diving activities were recorded five times for a maximum of five minutes. The count began in the corner where Gearheart, Allen and Hauser pond are connected. First, we walked in the north-west direction of the main road along Gearheart, and then we turned right and walked east into the trails of Allen pond. Next, we walked west along the main road to record the diving activity of buffleheads in Hausder and finished our data collection in Klopp Lake.
Data Analysis
I used t-test (2 tails) or the Spearman Rank test depending on the question to be answered. I omitted the diving activity of the male that was doing courtship displays because he was not diving more than 5 seconds and that was representing the entire population. Disturbance events were separated in two main groups; disturbance and no disturbance. I used α=0.05 to determine whether my results were significant or not.
RESULTS
A total of 66 bufflehead (35 males and 31 females) were part of the 6-day data collection. We recorded a total of 328 dives of male and female buffleheads. My statistical analysis did not find any significant difference in the diving activity of males that were accompanied by females and males that were on their own (t = 0.43, df = 32, P = 0.67; Table 1). Also, I tested for any difference in the diving activity of male and female bufflehead and found that males diving activity was significantly greater than female diving activity (t = 4.02, df = 63, P < 0.005; Fig. 2).
Additionally, I tested for male diving activity and disturbance occurrences in the Arcata Marsh and my results suggested that bufflehead male diving activity was not influenced by possible disturbance events during data collection (t = 0.69, df = 32, P = 0.50). I found that there was no correlation in male bufflehead diving activity and the number of individuals of the same the flock (rs = -0.03, n = 32, P = 0.08; Fig. 3). The time that bufflehead males spent diving could have been influenced by the tide levels during that day, but I found that male diving activity was not correlated with tide levels during data collection (rs = -0.03, n = 32, P = 0.85).
DISCUSSION
During the 6-day study I only observed one courtship display by a male, and the male spent most of his time making courtship displays to the female rather than feeding. This duck spent an average of 5 second diving; therefore, I removed this duck from the data analysis in order to avoid biased results. Furthermore, my hypothesis was based on Townsend observation (1916) who mentioned that bufflehead selected their mates from February to April. Therefore, my hypothesis could still be tested in March and April. In addition, my study took place in a small area in northern California. The winter distribution of bufflehead is widespread in most of the United States territory; therefore, the timing of our local bufflehead courtship behavior may not represent the entire population.
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
Scientific studies around the world and supporting evidence aid federal and state agencies in conservation and management decision making (Cook et al. 2009). The understanding and timing of the formation of pair bonds in waterfowl species is very important so that authorities can make conservation decisions and determine hunting seasons and many other recreational activities that impact waterfowl populations.
LITERATURED CITED
Bergan, J. F., L. M. Smith, and J. J. Mayer. 1989. Time-activity budgets of diving ducks wintering in South Carolina. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:769-776.
Cook, C. N., M. Hockings, and R. Carter. 2009. Conservation in the dark? The information used to support management decisions. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 8:181–186.
Friends of the Arcata Marsh. 1989. <http://arcatamarshfriends.org/marsh.php>. Accessed 28 Feb 2013.
Gilles, G. 1993. Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola). Account 67 in A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The Birds of North America, The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C., USA.
Higley, M. J. 1988. Vegetation growth and wildlife use of the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife
Sanctuary immediately before and after the introduction of domestic wastewater effluent as the primary freshwater source. Pages 56-61 in Proceedings of a conference on wetlands for wastewater treatment and resource enhancement. Humboldt State University, 2 August-4 August 1988, Arcata, California, USA
Owen, M., and J. M. Black. 1990. Waterfowl Ecology. The Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucester, U.K., and Chapman and Hall, New York, USA.
Townsend, C. W. 1916. The courtship of the merganser, mallard, black duck, baldpate, wood duck and bufflehead. The Auk 1:9-17.
Wildlife Sanctuary | City of Arcata. 2013. City of Arcata. <http://www.cityofarcata.org/departments/environmental-services/water-wastewater/wildlife-sanctuary>. Accessed 22 March 2013.
WWW Tide and Current Predictor 2012. Arcata Wharf, Humboldt Bay, California. <http://tbone.biol.sc.edu/tide>. Accessed 16 April 2013.
INTRODUCTION
Waterfowl are one of the many groups of birds that at some point of their life cycle are very dependent to wetlands (Owen and Black 1990). Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) is a diving duck that migrates south from Canada to winter in the United States. Buffleheads spend a considerable amount of time feeding, and males and females are observed in different flock sizes. A study of bufflehead and other local ducks suggest that some buffleheads select their mates in February, March and April before migrating to their breeding areas (Townsend 1916). I hypothesized that mating selection of female buffleheads might be influenced by diving activity of male buffleheads in the winter.
The aim of this study was to find out if male buffleheads that spend more time feeding (diving) are most likely to be found with female partners. Buffleheads, as well as other waterfowl species, play a big role in wildlife management and therefore their study is important for hunting, conservation and management implications. Bufflehead is a small diving duck who feeds in invertebrates and vegetation in both fresh and saltwater (The Birds of North America 1993), and they winter in most of the United States territory. Buffleheads spend most of their time feeding during the winter as they get prepared to the long journey to their breeding areas in spring (Bergan et al. 1989). I will address the question whether bufflehead females will be observed more often with males that spend more time diving. If my hypothesis is supported, then male buffleheads that spend more time underwater will be accompanied by one or more females; and therefore, males that spend less time diving will be surrounded by fewer or none females.
STUDY AREA
This study was conducted in the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary (AMWS) in Arcata, California, USA (40.8562°N, 124.0953°W) (Fig. 1). The AMWS is the result of a wastewater treatment plan created to clean the sewage waste naturally before it is released into Humboldt Bay (Friends of the Arcata Marsh 1989). The AMWS is 125 hectares of salt/freshwater marshes and grassy uplands that provide habitat to over 270 birds during the migratory season and 73 birds all year-round (Wildlife Sanctuary City of Arcata 2013). In addition, the area provides rich in vegetation for duck food like sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), lesser duckweed (Lemna minor) as well as shrubs, trees and grasses around the ponds (Higley 1988). The AMWS is also a public place that people visit in a daily basis and no permission or purchase of a ticket is required to enjoy recreational activities like walking, biking and birding.
METHODS
I collected my data (with the assistance of a classmate) for three consecutive weekends on 9-10, 16-17, 23 and 25 of February 2013. We met at the railway tracks South “I” street at the AMWS at 900 hours (±15 minutes), during the study. On arrival, one person was in charge of taking notes and recording data including start time, precipitation (none, slight, moderate and heavy), and cloud cover (none, partly cloudy, mostly cloudy and overcast). In addition, the same person recorded the presence of raptors, river otters, human activities and other potential disturbance events that may affect the behavior of buffleheads in the ponds. Ducks that moved to a different pond were counted only if the diving activity of these birds were previously recorded and we were always vigilant for events like predation, inter- and intraspecific competition and courtship displays. Tide levels were obtained during data collection in 15 minute intervals (WWW Tide and Current Predictor 2012).
We collected our data in six days on three consecutive weekends of February making a total of 66 counts during the study period. Using a pair of 10x12 binoculars and a stop-watch, the second person was in charge of recording the diving activity of 2-4 ducks at each pond. Ducks were randomly chosen from groups or when they were alone, and their diving activities were recorded five times for a maximum of five minutes. The count began in the corner where Gearheart, Allen and Hauser pond are connected. First, we walked in the north-west direction of the main road along Gearheart, and then we turned right and walked east into the trails of Allen pond. Next, we walked west along the main road to record the diving activity of buffleheads in Hausder and finished our data collection in Klopp Lake.
Data Analysis
I used t-test (2 tails) or the Spearman Rank test depending on the question to be answered. I omitted the diving activity of the male that was doing courtship displays because he was not diving more than 5 seconds and that was representing the entire population. Disturbance events were separated in two main groups; disturbance and no disturbance. I used α=0.05 to determine whether my results were significant or not.
RESULTS
A total of 66 bufflehead (35 males and 31 females) were part of the 6-day data collection. We recorded a total of 328 dives of male and female buffleheads. My statistical analysis did not find any significant difference in the diving activity of males that were accompanied by females and males that were on their own (t = 0.43, df = 32, P = 0.67; Table 1). Also, I tested for any difference in the diving activity of male and female bufflehead and found that males diving activity was significantly greater than female diving activity (t = 4.02, df = 63, P < 0.005; Fig. 2).
Additionally, I tested for male diving activity and disturbance occurrences in the Arcata Marsh and my results suggested that bufflehead male diving activity was not influenced by possible disturbance events during data collection (t = 0.69, df = 32, P = 0.50). I found that there was no correlation in male bufflehead diving activity and the number of individuals of the same the flock (rs = -0.03, n = 32, P = 0.08; Fig. 3). The time that bufflehead males spent diving could have been influenced by the tide levels during that day, but I found that male diving activity was not correlated with tide levels during data collection (rs = -0.03, n = 32, P = 0.85).
DISCUSSION
During the 6-day study I only observed one courtship display by a male, and the male spent most of his time making courtship displays to the female rather than feeding. This duck spent an average of 5 second diving; therefore, I removed this duck from the data analysis in order to avoid biased results. Furthermore, my hypothesis was based on Townsend observation (1916) who mentioned that bufflehead selected their mates from February to April. Therefore, my hypothesis could still be tested in March and April. In addition, my study took place in a small area in northern California. The winter distribution of bufflehead is widespread in most of the United States territory; therefore, the timing of our local bufflehead courtship behavior may not represent the entire population.
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
Scientific studies around the world and supporting evidence aid federal and state agencies in conservation and management decision making (Cook et al. 2009). The understanding and timing of the formation of pair bonds in waterfowl species is very important so that authorities can make conservation decisions and determine hunting seasons and many other recreational activities that impact waterfowl populations.
LITERATURED CITED
Bergan, J. F., L. M. Smith, and J. J. Mayer. 1989. Time-activity budgets of diving ducks wintering in South Carolina. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:769-776.
Cook, C. N., M. Hockings, and R. Carter. 2009. Conservation in the dark? The information used to support management decisions. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 8:181–186.
Friends of the Arcata Marsh. 1989. <http://arcatamarshfriends.org/marsh.php>. Accessed 28 Feb 2013.
Gilles, G. 1993. Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola). Account 67 in A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The Birds of North America, The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C., USA.
Higley, M. J. 1988. Vegetation growth and wildlife use of the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife
Sanctuary immediately before and after the introduction of domestic wastewater effluent as the primary freshwater source. Pages 56-61 in Proceedings of a conference on wetlands for wastewater treatment and resource enhancement. Humboldt State University, 2 August-4 August 1988, Arcata, California, USA
Owen, M., and J. M. Black. 1990. Waterfowl Ecology. The Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucester, U.K., and Chapman and Hall, New York, USA.
Townsend, C. W. 1916. The courtship of the merganser, mallard, black duck, baldpate, wood duck and bufflehead. The Auk 1:9-17.
Wildlife Sanctuary | City of Arcata. 2013. City of Arcata. <http://www.cityofarcata.org/departments/environmental-services/water-wastewater/wildlife-sanctuary>. Accessed 22 March 2013.
WWW Tide and Current Predictor 2012. Arcata Wharf, Humboldt Bay, California. <http://tbone.biol.sc.edu/tide>. Accessed 16 April 2013.
Wood Ducks - Field Trip
This field trip was a great experience. We got to the ranch around 8am on a very usual sunny day. The main purpose of our visit was to look for established wood duck nests in the artificial boxes around the ranch. We took notes of the UTM coordinates, the number of eggs at each nest and identified how long the eggs have been laid based on a common technique known was egg floating.
In this field trip I also learned that we, as future scientists, should not assume things until it has been confirmed by an expert. In our first nest, we found 11 eggs that we assumed were wood duck nests. We all saw the female flying away and we all assume it was a wood duck until we looked that the second nest. Only then, we realized that the eggs from the previous nest were not wood duck eggs because they were too big. Based of the wing coloration patterns, we came to the conclusion that those eggs were actually from a common merganser.
Additionally, we learned how to take measurements of a female wood duck by measuring her skull, weight, and also banded her leg for the identification of future sights of the individual.
We found a total of 5 nests, 4 nests had eggs, 3 nests had wood duck eggs, and only in nest we were able to catch the female.
Overall, it was one of the best field trips I have been in Humboldt State University.
In this field trip I also learned that we, as future scientists, should not assume things until it has been confirmed by an expert. In our first nest, we found 11 eggs that we assumed were wood duck nests. We all saw the female flying away and we all assume it was a wood duck until we looked that the second nest. Only then, we realized that the eggs from the previous nest were not wood duck eggs because they were too big. Based of the wing coloration patterns, we came to the conclusion that those eggs were actually from a common merganser.
Additionally, we learned how to take measurements of a female wood duck by measuring her skull, weight, and also banded her leg for the identification of future sights of the individual.
We found a total of 5 nests, 4 nests had eggs, 3 nests had wood duck eggs, and only in nest we were able to catch the female.
Overall, it was one of the best field trips I have been in Humboldt State University.
Arcata Marsh & Wildlife Sanctuary - Field Trip
In the beginning of the semester we had a field trip to the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary, hereafter Arcata marsh, located in Arcata, California, USA (40.856°N, 124.095°W).
Before I talked about my experience, I want to introduce to all of you what the Arcata marsh is.
The Arcata marsh is the result of a wastewater treatment plan created to clean the sewage waste naturally before it is released into Humboldt Bay (Friends of the Arcata Marsh 1989).
The Arcata Marsh is 125 hectares of salt/freshwater marshes and grassy uplands that provide habitat to over 270 birds during the migratory season and 73 birds all year-round (Wildlife Sanctuary City of Arcata 2013). In addition, the area provides rich in vegetation for duck food like sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), lesser duckweed (Lemna minor) as well as shrubs, trees and grasses around the ponds. The Arcata marsh is also a public place that people visit in a daily basis and no permission or purchase of a ticket is required to enjoy recreational activities like walking, biking and birding.
We went to the Arcata marsh to identify local waterfowl. Therefore, we took some time to practice our waterfowl identification skills. We saw Northern shoveler (Anas clypeata), Redhead (Aythya americana), Cinnamon teal (Anas cyanoptera), Greater Scaup (Aythya marila), Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis), Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola), and some others.
We also practiced our goose collar-id skills and discussed possible research projects and different approaches to collect data in the field minimizing bias results. I liked this field trip since it is always good to be outside.
Before I talked about my experience, I want to introduce to all of you what the Arcata marsh is.
The Arcata marsh is the result of a wastewater treatment plan created to clean the sewage waste naturally before it is released into Humboldt Bay (Friends of the Arcata Marsh 1989).
The Arcata Marsh is 125 hectares of salt/freshwater marshes and grassy uplands that provide habitat to over 270 birds during the migratory season and 73 birds all year-round (Wildlife Sanctuary City of Arcata 2013). In addition, the area provides rich in vegetation for duck food like sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), lesser duckweed (Lemna minor) as well as shrubs, trees and grasses around the ponds. The Arcata marsh is also a public place that people visit in a daily basis and no permission or purchase of a ticket is required to enjoy recreational activities like walking, biking and birding.
We went to the Arcata marsh to identify local waterfowl. Therefore, we took some time to practice our waterfowl identification skills. We saw Northern shoveler (Anas clypeata), Redhead (Aythya americana), Cinnamon teal (Anas cyanoptera), Greater Scaup (Aythya marila), Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis), Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola), and some others.
We also practiced our goose collar-id skills and discussed possible research projects and different approaches to collect data in the field minimizing bias results. I liked this field trip since it is always good to be outside.